Cataphracts: Heavy Cavalry of the Ancient World

The iconic image of cataphracts, heavily armoured warriors and horses, evokes a sense of raw military power and discipline. From at least the third century BC until as late as the Byzantine cataphract in the fourteenth century AD, they were some of the most dominant heavy cavalry units of the ancient world. Their presence was often a decisive factor in battles where shock and awe were the order of the day.

This time-trip back to the battlefields of the ancient world will shed light on some of the most famous and formidable warriors in history – the cataphracts.

The origins of cataphract warfare can be traced back to the nomadic horse cultures of the Central Asian steppes as early as the fourth century BC, where riders developed the skills and tactics needed for armoured mounted warfare. These peoples relied on mobility, precision, and force, eventually evolving the cataphract concept to counter the increasing use of heavy infantry by their rivals. Over time, the idea of fully-armoured cavalry spread westward into Persia and to some of the world’s major empires and civilisations.

The Parthian cataphract – and later the Sassanid cataphract – were used to great effect in ancient battles against the Roman Empire. Roman and Byzantine forces themselves adopted and adapted the idea, creating their own versions of cataphracts, which combined eastern influences with their own military traditions. Each iteration differed in terms of specific types of armour, weaponry, and tactics, but all were instrumental in the evolution of armoured cavalry around the world.

What’s In A Name?

The word cataphract is derived from the Greek kataphraktos, which translates to ‘fully armoured’ or ‘closed from all sides.’ While it was probably spoken centuries before, one of the first documented appearances was in the writings of first century BC Roman historian Lucius Cornelius Sisenna, writing about loricatos, quos cataphractos vocant, or ‘the armoured, who they call cataphracts.’

Cataphracts used two main types of armour, scale armour and lamellar armour. The choice often depended on factors like availability of materials, technological advancements, and the specific needs of their military role.

Scale Armour

The scale armour worn by cataphracts consisted of small, individual plates, usually made of metal like bronze, iron or steel, but sometimes of horn or hardened leather. The scales were attached to a backing material of cloth or leather and were overlapped in a way that resembles the scales of a fish or reptile, hence the name.

Each scale was typically attached at the top, allowing the bottom to hang free, which provided a good balance between protection and flexibility. The overlapping design helped to deflect slashing blows and offered resistance against piercing attacks while giving the rider and his horse a good degree of motion. It’s thought a full set of scale armour for rider and horse may have comprised up to 1,300 ‘scales’ weighing over 40 kilograms.

Lamellar Armour

Lamellar armour was made up of small, rectangular plates made of bronze, iron, steel, leather or even animal bone, called lamellae, which were laced or riveted directly to each other without a backing material. It created a rigid but flexible shell and running repairs were therefore relatively straightforward. Lamellar armour offered superior protection against piercing and blunt force trauma, and when worn over chainmail – a mesh of interlocking metal rings – the combination provided a layered defence.

One of the most famous instances of lamellar armour was worn by the famous Terracotta Army, the sculptures depicting the armed forces of Qin Shi Huang, China’s first emperor.

Though cataphracts varied between cultures, their core role as elite cavalry remained consistent, the battlefield’s heavy hammer. They were used by some of history’s great states and empires. In each case, they were expected to break enemy lines, engage in fierce melee combat, and exert psychological dominance through their sheer presence. Here, we’ll take a closer look at four of the main cataphracts: the Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, and Byzantine cataphracts.

Parthian cataphracts were active during the Parthian Empire – in modern-day Iran – from approximately 247 BC to 224 AD. The Parthians were among the first military forces to deploy cataphracts, pioneering the use of this style of heavily armoured cavalry. They developed a formidable force that combined heavy scale armour with exceptional mobility, a reflection of their nomadic origins and the demands of warfare on the Iranian plateau.

The Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC is one of the most famous engagements involving Parthian cataphracts, where they faced an army of the Roman Republic led by Marcus Licinius Crassus. Using highly mobile horse archers and heavily armoured cataphracts, the Parthians inflicted a devastating defeat on the Romans. Their strategy involved using horse archers to harass and weaken enemy forces from a distance, followed by decisive cataphract charges used to break through demoralised and disorganised troops. The success of Parthian cataphracts at Carrhae had a lasting impact on Roman military reforms.

The Sassanid cataphracts, known as the Savaran, were active from 224 AD to 651 AD during the Sassanid Empire, and represented the pinnacle of heavy cavalry development in ancient Persia.The successors of the Parthians, the Sassanid cataphracts wore lamellar armour over chain mail, providing exceptional protection for rider and horse.

During the Battle of Edessa in 260 AD against the Roman Empire, Sassanid cataphracts captured Emperor Valerian – a rare and humiliating event for the Romans. They employed shock tactics, executing massed cavalry charges designed to overwhelm the Roman army through sheer force and momentum. The prominence of cataphracts in the Sassanid military underscored the empire’s emphasis and reliance on cavalry and its role in securing dominance over vast territories in the Near East.

Roman cataphracts began to appear in the Roman military around the second to third centuries AD, as a direct response to the tactics employed by Eastern adversaries such as the Parthians and Sarmatians. These units were a significant departure from the traditional Roman emphasis on heavy infantry. Roman cataphracts typically wore scale armour (lorica squamata) or mail armour (lorica hamata), which provided protection and flexibility. In some instances, their horses were also armoured, though not always to the same extent as their Eastern counterparts.

While unusual, the incorporation of cataphracts into the Roman army underscored the empire’s adaptability and willingness to integrate effective foreign military practices into their own plans.

The Byzantine cataphract emerged as a dominant force from the sixth century until the twelfth century AD and was a presence on the battlefield until the middle of the fourteenth century, although in an increasingly limited capacity. These elite cavalry units were often the backbone of Byzantine warfare, renowned for their discipline, training, and formidable battlefield presence. Their adaptability made them a versatile and indispensable component of the Byzantine military machine over many centuries.

Cataphracts epitomised the apex of heavy cavalry tactics in the ancient world. These formidable warriors, clad in gleaming armour, thundered across battlefields and shattered enemy lines. From their early adoption by the Parthians and Persians to their prominent role in Byzantine armies, cataphracts were a dominant military presence for centuries.

Their decline did not come swiftly but gradually, as evolving military strategies and more adaptable infantry units reduced their effectiveness. Yet, during their reign, they were often the decisive arm of ancient armies, turning the tides of countless battles and leaving a legacy that would influence warfare for generations to come.